Publications
The science behind Quokka3
Quokka's models are documented in the peer-reviewed literature, and over the past decade Quokka and Quokka3 have been used across a broad body of silicon and tandem solar-cell research — from record cells in Nature and Nature Energy to industrial device analysis. Below are the papers that define the simulator, followed by a selection of the work that applies it.
- 100+ publications using Quokka, listed on this page
- 42 of them published since 2025
- 690 works citing the Quokka method papers (OpenAlex, September 2026)
How to cite Quokka3
Please cite the Quokka3 “skin concept” paper (Fell et al., SOLMAT, 2017) as the primary reference. Where relevant, also cite the model paper matching your simulation — for example tandem cells (Fell et al., IEEE JPV, 2022).
The Quokka method papers
First-author papers describing the simulator and the physical and numerical models it implements. These are the references to cite when you use Quokka3.
- The original Quokka paper
A free and fast three-dimensional/two-dimensional solar cell simulator featuring conductive boundary and quasi-neutrality approximations
Introduces Quokka: a free, fast 3-D/2-D silicon solar-cell simulator built on the quasi-neutrality and conductive-boundary approximations, which computes a full I–V curve in seconds to minutes on an ordinary PC. This is the canonical reference for the simulator.
doi.org/10.1109/TED.2012.2231415 ↗ - Foundation of Quokka3
The concept of skins for silicon solar cell modeling
Introduces the “skin” concept underpinning Quokka3: thin near-surface regions (diffusions, passivating contacts, tandem top cells) are lumped into injection-dependent effective recombination and sheet-resistance parameters by a 1-D skin solver, then coupled to a fast multidimensional bulk solver. This enabled — for the first time — full 3-D simulation of an entire 156 mm cell, orders of magnitude faster than generic device simulators.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.05.012 ↗ -
3-D simulation of interdigitated-back-contact silicon solar cells with Quokka including perimeter losses
Extends Quokka to full 3-D interdigitated-back-contact (IBC) cells with arbitrary contact and diffusion patterns, free-energy-loss analysis, and a method to capture cell-edge and busbar perimeter losses. Validated against measured high-efficiency IBC cells and against Sentaurus Device.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2014.2320302 ↗ -
Combining drift-diffusion and equivalent-circuit models for efficient 3D tandem solar cell simulations
Extends Quokka3 to tandem cells by coupling a 1-D equivalent-circuit top-cell model into the front boundary condition while the silicon bottom cell is solved in 3-D, so adding a perovskite top cell costs little extra computation. Makes full-area 3-D tandem simulation tractable, demonstrated on perovskite/silicon perimeter designs.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2022.3209608 ↗ -
Simplified device simulation of silicon solar cells using a lumped parameter optical model
A lumped-parameter optical model that reproduces ray-traced optical generation profiles from just the front-surface transmission and a path-length enhancement factor, with negligible error and near independence from spectrum, thickness, and temperature. Provides Quokka’s fast optical-generation input as an alternative to full ray tracing.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2016.2528407 ↗ -
Modeling edge recombination in silicon solar cells
Adds a localized edge-recombination model to Quokka3, applying an edge-length-specific J02 directly on the 3-D cell boundary rather than as an external diode. Establishes a largely device-independent worst-case edge recombination of ~19 nA/cm and clarifies why edge losses appear differently in the dark and illuminated I–V.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2017.2787020 ↗ -
Adaption of basic metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) theory for passivating contacts within numerical solar cell modeling
Adapts basic metal-insulator-semiconductor theory into a physically-based boundary condition (a “skin”) for passivating contacts such as TOPCon and SHJ, capturing non-ohmic contact resistivity, injection-dependent recombination, and current-independent voltage drops that the simple lumped approach misses. Reproduces the fill-factor temperature dependence of TOPCon cells from very few parameters.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2018.2871953 ↗ -
Radiative recombination in silicon photovoltaics: Modeling the influence of charge carrier densities and photon recycling
Reassesses the carrier-density dependence of silicon’s radiative recombination coefficient, photon recycling, and free-carrier absorption, and proposes a photon-recycling scaling factor. Shows that above ~1e16 cm⁻³ free-carrier absorption breaks the proportionality between luminescence signal and radiative recombination — important for interpreting calibrated photoluminescence-lifetime measurements.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2021.111198 ↗ -
Modeling parasitic absorption in silicon solar cells with a near-surface absorption parameter
Introduces a near-surface absorption parameter (Appp) that quantifies parasitic absorption in passivating-contact layers (poly-Si, a-Si, TCO) from a single value fitted to reflectance, avoiding the need to know every layer’s optical constants. Proposes Appp as a third passivating-contact figure of merit alongside J0,c and contact resistivity.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2021.111534 ↗ - Community reference
Input parameters for the simulation of silicon solar cells in 2014
A multi-institution reference review providing complete, justified input-parameter sets for simulating six major crystalline-silicon cell types, intended as a consistent and reproducible starting point. Widely used as the community benchmark for silicon-cell simulation inputs.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2015.2430016 ↗ -
A detailed full-cell model of a 2018 commercial PERC solar cell in Quokka3
A fully documented full-cell model of a state-of-the-art 2018 commercial PERC cell, using a new multidomain approach so the entire 156 mm 3-D geometry — including the emitter skins — is solved in a single simulation. Provides a complete reference input-parameter set and loss breakdown for modelling industrial PERC cells.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2018.2863548 ↗ -
Elucidating the efficiency limit of silicon-based monolithic tandem cells through the combination of Auger and Shockley–Queisser limits
Combines state-of-the-art silicon Auger-recombination modelling with Shockley–Queisser top-cell limits to establish realistic efficiency limits for silicon-based tandems, implemented in Quokka3. Finds a maximum two-terminal efficiency of 43.2% (optimal top-cell bandgap 1.71 eV, 300 µm silicon), below the 45.2% from idealized assumptions, and provides lookup tables for device optimization.
doi.org/10.1039/D5EL00085H ↗
Applications
Research that uses Quokka or Quokka3 to design, analyse, or understand solar cells — including the author's own collaborations and independent work by other groups. Ordered by relevance.
- 26.81% — c-Si record
Silicon heterojunction solar cells with up to 26.81% efficiency achieved by electrically optimized nanocrystalline-silicon hole contact layers
Reports LONGi's silicon heterojunction (SHJ) cell reaching 26.81% — at publication the highest efficiency for any crystalline-silicon solar cell — enabled by electrically optimized nanocrystalline-silicon hole-contact layers. A widely cited milestone within the high-efficiency-silicon literature that draws on Quokka device modelling.
doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01255-2 ↗ - 32.5% certified tandem
Enhanced optoelectronic coupling for perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells
Replaces the crystalline interconnecting TCO in monolithic perovskite/silicon tandems with ultrathin (5 nm) amorphous IZO for more homogeneous hole-selective contacts on textured silicon, reaching an independently certified 32.5% efficiency while cutting indium use by ~80%. Quokka3 device simulation supported the optoelectronic analysis.
doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06667-4 ↗ - 26.0% cell + design rules
Design rules for high-efficiency both-sides-contacted silicon solar cells with balanced charge carrier transport and recombination losses
Shows that omitting front-side lateral-transport layers is key to top optoelectrical performance, demonstrating a 26.0% both-sides-contacted cell whose junction is a full-area rear poly-Si passivating contact. A simulation-based power-loss analysis yields fundamental design rules for future >26% both-sides-contacted silicon cells.
doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00805-w ↗ - 25.7% record TOPCon
n-Type Si solar cells with passivating electron contact: Identifying sources for efficiency limitations by wafer thickness and resistivity variation
Combines wafer thickness and resistivity variation with 3-D full-area Quokka simulations to identify the recombination sources limiting n-type TOPCon cells, pinpointing SRH bulk recombination as the cause of fill-factor loss in high-resistivity silicon. Using 1 Ω·cm silicon achieved a then-record 25.7% efficiency for both-sides-contacted c-Si.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.05.042 ↗ - 29.4% c-Si limit
Reassessment of the intrinsic bulk recombination in crystalline silicon
Reassesses intrinsic (Auger + radiative) recombination in crystalline silicon from a dedicated set of high-quality samples, deriving an improved Coulomb-enhanced Auger parameterization valid across all relevant doping and injection. Quokka3 is then used to compute the resulting fundamental single-junction silicon efficiency limit of 29.4% — now a widely used reference value.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2021.111467 ↗ -
TOPCon-based bottom cells for perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells
A review benchmarking TOPCon bottom cells against silicon-heterojunction bottom cells for perovskite/silicon tandems on efficiency potential, manufacturability, cost and scalability. Certified TOPCon-based tandems still lag, but simulations predict comparable efficiencies while TOPCon's lower fabrication cost favours mass production. Draws on Quokka3 device simulation.
doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2026.102396 ↗ -
Monolithic perovskite/Si tandem solar cells: Pathways to over 30% efficiency
A combined modelling and experimental study mapping the loss mechanisms and design pathways for monolithic perovskite/silicon tandems toward >30% efficiency, spanning optical coupling, recombination, and current matching. A widely cited roadmap for the tandem field.
doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201902840 ↗ - 27% SHJ, 98.6% CTM
27%-efficiency silicon heterojunction cell with 98.6% cell-to-module ratio driving new momentum towards the 29.4% limit
Reports a certified silicon-heterojunction cell efficiency above 27.0% with an 87.06% fill factor on a 210 mm half-cell, via rear-side polishing and progressive RF/VHF PECVD doping layers, plus a certified 25.44% module at a 98.6% cell-to-module ratio. Argues that approaching Auger dominance matters more than reducing front shading on the way to the 29.4% limit. Draws on Quokka3 device simulation.
doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-64465-0 ↗ - 24.4% IBC
Design, fabrication and characterisation of a 24.4% efficient interdigitated back contact solar cell
Design, fabrication, and full 3-D loss analysis of an ANU interdigitated-back-contact cell reaching an independently confirmed 24.4%. Measured optical and electronic properties were fed into Quokka 3-D modelling to quantify every loss mechanism and chart a route beyond 25%.
doi.org/10.1002/pip.2556 ↗ -
Progress of plated metallization for industrial bifacial TOPCon silicon solar cells
Develops plated Cu metallization for industrial bifacial TOPCon cells and analyses the resulting contact and resistive losses, supporting the case for plating as a silver-free industrial metallization route.
doi.org/10.1002/pip.3528 ↗ -
Efficiency roadmap for evolutionary upgrades of PERC solar cells by TOPCon: Impact of parasitic absorption
A simulation-based efficiency roadmap (Quokka3 electrical plus Sentaurus optics) for evolutionarily upgrading p-PERC cells with TOPCon passivating contacts, explicitly accounting for parasitic free-carrier absorption in the poly-Si. Full rear plus front-aligned TOPCon can add ~1% absolute efficiency.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2019.2957642 ↗ -
Nanoscale back contact perovskite solar cell design for improved tandem efficiency
Uses optical and device modelling to propose nanoscale back-contact perovskite cell designs that reduce parasitic absorption and improve current collection, raising the achievable efficiency of perovskite/silicon tandems.
doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b01092 ↗ -
A Synergistic Process Optimization and Data-Driven Modeling Strategy for Unraveling and Enhancing the Low-Light Response in Back-Contact Solar Cells
Traces the weak low-light performance of tunnel-oxide back-contact cells to leakage paths caused by residual cap-shaped borosilicate glass in the rear p-type poly-Si, and lifts it to TOPCon level (power loss below 5%) by optimizing laser grooving. Quokka3 device simulations of both TBC and TOPCon cells at about 24% efficiency, combined with SunSolve module modelling, feed a machine-learning co-optimization of efficiency and low-light response.
doi.org/10.1002/smll.74382 ↗ -
Transient photovoltage in perovskite solar cells: Interaction of trap-mediated recombination and migration of multiple ionic species
A numerical drift-diffusion model of perovskite cells including migration of multiple ionic species coupled to trap-mediated recombination, explaining both J–V hysteresis and unusual nonmonotonic photovoltage transients. Identifies modulation of the recombination profile by net ionic charge as the unifying mechanism.
doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b02529 ↗ -
Higher-Efficiency TOPCon Solar Cells in Mass Production Enabled by Laser-Assisted Firing: Advanced Loss Analysis and Near-Term Efficiency Potential
Compares Jolywood's laser-assisted firing process against baseline single-step firing on high-volume production TOPCon cells, gaining ~0.58% absolute efficiency by cutting front and rear contact recombination from ~280 and ~98 fA/cm² to ~88 and ~21 fA/cm². Quokka 3 simulations quantify each contribution and show a further ~0.3% absolute is available from front screen-pattern optimization.
doi.org/10.1002/pip.3921 ↗ -
Simulation-based roadmap for the integration of poly-silicon on oxide contacts into screen-printed crystalline silicon solar cells
A simulation-based roadmap for integrating poly-Si/oxide (TOPCon) passivating contacts into screen-printed industrial silicon cells, quantifying the efficiency gains of each integration step.
doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79591-6 ↗ -
Passivation of all-angle black surfaces for silicon solar cells
Studies surface passivation of black-silicon (all-angle textured) surfaces and its impact on recombination and reflectance, combining experiment with device modelling to assess the efficiency potential of black-silicon cells.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.10.044 ↗ -
Evolutionary PERC+ solar cell efficiency projection towards 24%
A device-simulation efficiency projection for evolutionary PERC+ upgrades toward 24%, evaluating poly-Si fingers beneath the front contact and other incremental improvements to the industrial PERC architecture.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110586 ↗ -
Analysis of passivation property using thin Al2O3 layer and simulation for realization of high-efficiency TOPCon cell
Combines Al2O3-passivation measurements with Quokka simulation to project the efficiency potential of TOPCon cells, identifying the passivation and contact parameters that most constrain performance.
doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2020.103341 ↗ - 22.3% mc-Si record
Towards the efficiency limits of multicrystalline silicon solar cells
Reports a certified world-record 22.3% n-type high-performance multicrystalline silicon TOPCon cell and a detailed loss analysis of the record batch, attributing the gap to FZ references mainly to grain-boundary and emitter recombination. Projects ~23% achievable mc-Si efficiency.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2018.05.006 ↗ -
A study on the charge carrier transport of passivating contacts
Investigates charge-carrier transport across the interfacial oxide of TOPCon passivating contacts, distinguishing tunneling-dominated from pinhole-dominated devices. Quokka3 with the MIS boundary condition reproduces the measured temperature dependence of the fill factor, linking the FF behaviour to partial crystallization of the poly-Si layer.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2018.2870735 ↗ -
Optimized front TCO and metal grid electrode for module-integrated perovskite–silicon tandem solar cells
Optimizes the front transparent-conductive-oxide (TCO) and metallization grid for module-integrated perovskite/silicon tandems, balancing optical, resistive, and shading losses. Quokka3 device simulation shows the front ITO can be thinned from ~75 nm to ~20 nm — cutting indium use — without an efficiency penalty once the grid is co-optimized.
doi.org/10.1002/pip.3491 ↗ - 24.3% Cu-contacted TOPCon
Characterization of 24.3% screen-printed Cu-contacted n-type tunnel oxide passivated contact solar cell with laser enhanced contact optimization
Demonstrates 24.3% screen-printed Cu-contacted n-TOPCon cells, against 24.5% for Ag counterparts, by combining low-temperature firing with laser-enhanced contact optimization to limit Cu penetration into the silicon; the Cu contact reaches a J0,metal of 14 fA/cm² on the rear poly-Si. Quokka 3 device simulations validate the measured parameters and attribute the 0.2% gap to Cu's higher contact and line resistance.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2026.115053 ↗ -
Realization and simulation of interdigitated back contact silicon solar cells with dopant-free asymmetric hetero-contacts
Realizes and simulates IBC silicon cells using dopant-free asymmetric hetero-contacts, with Quokka 3-D simulation used to understand the loss mechanisms and design space of the dopant-free architecture.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.09.085 ↗ -
Quantifying surface recombination — Improvements in determination and simulation of the surface recombination parameter J0s
Improves how the surface recombination parameter J0s is obtained from lifetime data and from device simulations, and quantifies the error (up to 50% in simulated emitters) introduced by pairing it with an outdated intrinsic-recombination model. Provides an updated, self-consistent J0s parameterization.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2023.3265859 ↗ -
Simulation of gap-region cutting for suppressing edge recombination losses in tunnel oxide passivated back-contact solar cells
Uses Quokka3 device simulations of half-, third- and quarter-cell configurations, including realistic deviations of the laser-cut position within the designed gap, to compare cutting back-contact TOPCon cells through the gap region rather than the emitter region. Gap-region cutting roughly halves the cut-induced efficiency loss, with an optimum post-cut gap width near 0.3 mm.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2026.115017 ↗ -
Simulation Insights Into Enhanced Emitter Contact Passivation via LECO on Industrial TOPCon Solar Cells
Numerical simulations rule out boron-profile redistribution during firing as the cause of the reduced emitter contact recombination seen with laser-enhanced contact optimization, attributing it instead to localized, non-continuous contacts — a 37.27% partial metal contact ratio in a 25.5% baseline cell. Selective-emitter dopant engineering plus a 1% contact ratio raises the simulated efficiency to 26.07%. Draws on Quokka3 device simulation.
doi.org/10.1002/pip.70104 ↗ - 22.8% bifacial
22.8% full-area bifacial n-PERT solar cells with rear side sputtered poly-Si (n) passivating contact
Fabricates 22.8% full-area bifacial n-PERT cells with a sputtered poly-Si rear passivating contact, using device simulation to analyse the contact and bulk losses limiting the architecture.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.112043 ↗ -
How transport layers influence the bulk recombination dynamics in perovskites
Shows that in perovskite absorbers sandwiched between charge-transport layers, carrier-density gradients build up across the absorber and modulate its bulk recombination dynamics, which in turn sets the effective minority-carrier lifetime measured on such stacks and the efficiency of the resulting perovskite solar cell.
doi.org/10.1039/d6el00102e ↗ -
Monolithic two-terminal perovskite-based solar cells: an updated perspective on triple and higher order junctions
An updated perspective on monolithic two-terminal perovskite-based solar cells with three or more junctions — an emerging photovoltaic technology whose theoretical efficiency potential exceeds 47%. Surveys where recent research has concentrated: optimizing the top, middle and bottom sub-cells, and the recombination layers that interconnect them.
doi.org/10.1039/d6el00031b ↗ -
Interfacial dynamics and contact passivation in perovskite solar cells
Combines transient photocurrent measurements with device simulation to separate slow ion migration from fast interfacial recombination in perovskite cells, identifying interfacial charge accumulation as the driver of hysteresis and Voc loss. A passivating interlayer renders the devices hysteresis-free.
doi.org/10.1002/aelm.201800500 ↗ -
Simulation-Based Analysis of Silicon Solar Cell Performance with Laser Enhanced Contacts: Impact of Bulk Defect Density and Resistivity
Compares devices with laser-enhanced contacts against conventional selective-emitter devices across a range of bulk resistivities, using experimentally extracted bulk defect parameters, and extends the analysis to low-light response and energy yield. High-resistivity wafers help only when defect densities are low, and their benefit shrinks further under low light and in variable-irradiance climates. Draws on Quokka3 device simulation.
doi.org/10.1002/solr.202500465 ↗ -
Self-aligned selective area front contacts on poly-Si/SiOx passivating contact c-Si solar cells
Demonstrates a self-aligned selective-area front-contact scheme for poly-Si/SiOx passivating-contact cells and uses device simulation to quantify the trade-off between contact recombination and series resistance.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2022.3148719 ↗ -
The electrical properties of high performance multicrystalline silicon and mono-like silicon: Material limitations and cell potential
Characterizes bulk lifetime and defect recombination of high-performance multicrystalline and mono-like silicon, then applies Quokka3 to simulate each material’s cell-efficiency potential and partition the loss by mechanism. Identifies n-type mono-like silicon as the most promising material.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2019.110059 ↗ -
Electron radiation-induced degradation of silicon solar cells
Irradiates n-type lifetime wafers and commercial p-PERC and n-/p-TOPCon cells with 1 and 5 MeV electrons, finding bulk lifetime falling from ~75,000 µs to ~0.2 µs at 1e15 e/cm² and integrated EQE dropping 27.5% for PERC and 33.3% for TOPCon. Quokka 3 simulations model the resulting I–V and EQE response; di-vacancies are identified as the dominant radiation-induced defect.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2025.114062 ↗ -
The impact of mobile ions on the steady-state performance of perovskite solar cells
Uses ionic drift-diffusion modelling to show that mobile ions need not degrade the steady-state efficiency of perovskite cells, only doing so when the carrier mobility–lifetime product is limited. Concludes that removing nonradiative recombination counteracts the impact of mobile ions.
doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b10578 ↗ -
The impact of measurement conditions on solar cell efficiency
Quantifies, via Quokka3 simulation and measurement, how cell measurement conditions and busbar concept can shift measured efficiency by up to 0.5% absolute, and how cell-level gains do not map identically onto module level. Proposes a notation to specify measurement conditions unambiguously.
doi.org/10.1002/solr.202300873 ↗ -
Is shunt quenching relevant to minimize shunt losses in perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells?
A comprehensive 3-D device-simulation study of whether “shunt-quenching” strategies (current mismatch, intermediate-layer resistance engineering) reduce local shunt losses in perovskite/silicon tandems. Concludes both are largely ineffective except for strong, macroscopically distributed shunts under specific conditions.
doi.org/10.1002/solr.202400571 ↗ -
Impact of bulk impurity contamination on the performance of high-efficiency n-type silicon solar cells
Uses Quokka3 simulations with reported Shockley–Read–Hall parameters of common metal impurities (Fe, Cr, Ni…) to quantify how bulk impurity contamination limits high-efficiency n-type silicon cells. Identifies bulk impurity recombination as a dominant efficiency loss for high-resistivity silicon and assesses which impurity signatures can be distinguished from cell measurements.
doi.org/10.1002/pip.2990 ↗ -
High efficiency UMG silicon solar cells: Impact of compensation on cell parameters
Fabricates high-efficiency n-type Czochralski cells (up to 19.8%) from 100% upgraded-metallurgical-grade (UMG) silicon feedstock. Quokka simulations comparing UMG-Cz against electronic-grade cells show that bulk lifetime — not dopant-compensation effects on mobility or resistivity — remains the primary efficiency limit for the UMG material.
doi.org/10.1002/pip.2729 ↗ -
Prediction of local temperature-dependent performance of silicon solar cells
Predicts the spatially resolved, temperature-dependent performance (Voc, Jsc, FF, efficiency) of a virtual silicon cell directly from injection- and temperature-dependent lifetime images, by combining calibrated photoluminescence imaging with Quokka3 device simulation. Enables local investigation of cell parameters under realistic operating temperatures.
doi.org/10.1002/pip.3130 ↗ -
Mitigation of shunt in poly-Si/SiOx passivated interdigitated back contact monocrystalline Si solar cells by self-aligned etching between doped fingers
Mitigates inter-finger shunting in poly-Si/SiOx IBC cells by a self-aligned etch of the isolation region, gaining 11.7% in fill factor. Quokka3 simulation identifies junction recombination (J02) in the isolation region as the dominant remaining loss.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112195 ↗ -
Simulation of TOPCoRE Solar Cells: Impact of Boron Doping Parameters of P+ Layer Localized Under Front Side Metal Contacts on Cell Performance
Uses Quokka3 to vary the peak boron concentration (1e19–1e20 cm⁻³) and profile depth (0.1–0.8 µm) of the hole-selective layer localized under the front metal contacts of a p-type TOPCoRE cell. An optimum of 1e20 cm⁻³ at 0.3 µm gives 735.8 mV, 42.19 mA/cm², 83.97% fill factor and 26.07% efficiency, yielding quantitative design rules across a range of surface recombination velocities.
doi.org/10.1007/s12633-026-03717-0 ↗ -
Extracting contact recombination from FFT-filtered photoluminescence imaging of half-metallised silicon solar cells
Presents a photoluminescence-imaging method that evaluates the metal-contact recombination current density J0,c of rear TOPCon metallisation from half-metallised silicon solar cells, using FFT filtering to isolate the contact signal. Addresses recombination at the metal–silicon interface, a major barrier to reaching the theoretical efficiency limit. Draws on Quokka3 device simulation.
doi.org/10.1039/d4el00016a ↗ -
Characterization of recombination properties and contact resistivity of laser-processed localized contacts from doped silicon nanoparticle ink and spin-on dopants
Introduces test structures and Quokka 3-D simulation to separately extract the recombination parameter J0,c and the contact resistivity of laser-doped localized contacts, resolving J0,c down to 300 fA/cm² and ρc down to 1e-4 Ω·cm². Projects a 23.7% efficiency potential for laser-doped IBC cells.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2017.2655028 ↗ -
Numerical simulations of photoluminescence for the precise determination of emitter contact recombination parameters
Uses Quokka3 to simulate photoluminescence images of metallized test structures so the emitter-contact recombination parameter J0,met can be extracted while correctly accounting for the non-uniform excess-carrier density that biases simpler evaluations. Establishes a more precise, simulation-grounded route to quantifying contact recombination.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2019.2938400 ↗ -
A step-by-step optimization of the c-Si bottom cell in monolithic perovskite/c-Si tandem devices
Opto-electrical modelling (SunSolve plus Quokka3) to optimize the silicon bottom cell in monolithic perovskite/silicon tandems, finding low-resistivity p-type wafers can outperform n-type and proposing two new bottom-cell architectures for >30% tandems.
doi.org/10.1002/solr.201800193 ↗ -
Spatially resolved determination of metallization-induced recombination losses using photoluminescence imaging
Develops a spatially resolved method to map metallization-induced recombination losses from photoluminescence images, using an interpolation scheme to predict the PL signal of a virtually non-metallized reference (to ~0.7% relative deviation) together with device simulation to extract the local contact recombination parameter J0,met.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2020.3038336 ↗ -
Revised parametrization of the recombination velocity at SiO2/SiNx-passivated phosphorus-diffused surfaces
Derives a revised, calibration-consistent parameterization of the effective surface recombination velocity for the industrially common SiO2/SiNx phosphorus-emitter passivation, using numerical simulation to separate field-effect from chemical passivation. Improves prediction of emitter J0 from the doping profile.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2021.111292 ↗ -
Assessing current-voltage measurements of busbarless solar cells
Shows the (unstandardized) contacting configuration used to measure busbarless cells can change measured fill factor and efficiency by over 10% relative, and provides a Quokka3-validated analytical method to convert I–V results between measurement and module configurations.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111988 ↗ -
TOPCon, TOPCoRE or TOPCon²: A Simulation-Based Efficiency Analysis
A comprehensive Quokka3 simulation analysis comparing industrial TOPCon with the rear-emitter TOPCoRE and local TOPCon² architectures, with input parameters taken from internal measurements and published data. Finds that TOPCoRE on p-type wafers can exceed 26% given equally high wafer quality, and that local front surface fields or local front TOPCon layers point to 26.5% and beyond.
doi.org/10.52825/siliconpv.v3i.2715 ↗ -
Perimeter recombination characterization by luminescence imaging
A luminescence-imaging method to extract cell-perimeter recombination from cells left embedded in the wafer, validated against 2-D device simulation. Sensitive enough to detect perimeter loss in an IBC cell whose J–V curve shows no obvious non-ideality.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2015.2480225 ↗ -
Understanding and Minimizing Perimeter Losses of Silicon-Based Monolithic Tandem Solar Cells – A Simulation Study
A 3-D device-simulation study of perimeter losses in perovskite/silicon tandem cells, systematically varying which of the laterally conducting layers at the front, the rear and between the sub-cells are structured. Finds that in each sub-cell at least one carrier type must be blocked from reaching the perimeter, and quantifies the loss at ~0.2–4% absolute for a 1 cm² top cell.
doi.org/10.52825/siliconpv.v2i.1326 ↗ -
Breakdown of temperature sensitivity of silicon solar cells by simulation input parameters
Extends Quokka3’s lumped-skin model to include the temperature dependence of bulk lifetime and skin recombination, then decomposes a PERC cell’s temperature sensitivity contribution by contribution. Finds these previously-neglected dependences matter little for typical PERC, while flagging remaining uncertainty for contacts and lowly-doped surfaces.
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110836 ↗ -
Parameterization of the back-surface reflection for PERC solar cells including variation of back-contact coverage
Tests Basore’s analytical light-trapping model (as implemented in Quokka3) for capturing the optical effect of rear-contact pitch in PERC cells, deriving simple linear parameterizations that replace slower ray tracing for metallization-fraction variation.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2021.3082402 ↗ -
Characterization of laser-doped localized p-n junctions for high efficiency silicon solar cells
Fits measured dark I–V curves with 3-D Quokka simulations to extract the contact resistance and dark saturation current of laser-doped localized p–n junctions. Identifies a ~24% efficiency potential for a non-optimized two-step laser-doping process.
doi.org/10.1109/TED.2014.2318714 ↗ -
3-D modeling of multicrystalline silicon materials and solar cells
Models large-area multicrystalline silicon in Quokka3 using synthetic lifetime images that combine injection-dependent intra-grain lifetime with defect recombination maps from photoluminescence. Shows lifetime-image-only simulations underestimate defect harm and overestimate performance.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2019.2914874 ↗ -
Efficiency potential of p-type Al2O3/SiNx passivated PERC solar cells with locally laser-doped rear contacts
Demonstrates simultaneous rear contact-opening and doping on large-area (156 mm) p-type Al2O3/SiNx PERC cells using UV and green laser processing, reaching up to 19.9%. 3-D device simulations show a further ~0.3% absolute efficiency gain is attainable with 5 µm laser point contacts at J0,c ≈ 5000 fA/cm² and ρc ≈ 1e-4 Ω·cm².
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2016.2535353 ↗ -
Local series resistance imaging of silicon solar cells with complex current paths
Extends luminescence-based local series-resistance imaging to cells with complex, asymmetric current paths (such as IBC), supported by a conductive-boundary I–V and luminescence simulation. Achieves ±30% agreement between averaged local and global series resistance.
doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2015.2397595 ↗ -
Influence of fundamental model uncertainties on silicon solar cell efficiency simulations
Propagates the uncertainties of fundamental physical models (bandgap narrowing, Auger, free-carrier absorption) through to simulated silicon-cell efficiency. Finds intrinsic model uncertainty is small (~0.1% absolute) but the choice of bandgap-narrowing model can shift efficiency by up to 0.6% absolute.
doi.org/10.1109/TED.2018.2882776 ↗ -
Back-contacted back-junction Si solar cells with locally overcompensated diffusion regions — Comparison of buried emitter and floating base design
Numerical and experimental comparison of two back-contacted back-junction cell designs with locally overcompensated diffusions, showing the buried-emitter design (21.4%) strongly outperforms the floating-base design (17.1%). 2-D device simulation attributes the floating-base losses to junction leakage and emitter-surface recombination.
doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201800791 ↗
Further work using Quokka
An incomplete and growing selection of additional third-party papers that use or build on Quokka, newest first. If your paper uses Quokka3 and isn't listed, let us know.
- Laser-assisted Localisation of Polysilicon Contact for High-efficiency Silicon Solar Cells
- Laser-assisted poly-finger rear patterning for efficiency enhancement in industrial n-TOPCon solar cells
- Fully Indium-Free Monolithic Two-Terminal Perovskite/Perovskite/Silicon Triple-Junction Solar Cells: Replacing All Four TCO Electrodes
- Electron irradiation effects on ultra-thin silicon IBC solar cells of varying thickness: Analytical modelling and experimental demonstration
- Enhanced Passivation of Boron-Doped Polysilicon Passivated Contacts With a Single-Sided J0 of 2.8 fA/cm² by Dual-Layer Silicon Oxide Structure
- Grid optimization of tunnel oxide passivated back contact silicon solar cells
- Parameter optimization of tunnel oxide passivated back contact (TBC) solar cells
- The intrinsic adjusted single-diode model: Solid state physics meets accurate yield simulation
- Bifaciality optimization of TBC silicon solar cells based on Quokka3 simulation
- Mitigating parasitic optical losses in bifacial TOPCon solar cells through localized thinning of polysilicon
- Characterization of Degradation and Damage Coefficient of Ga-Doped PERC Space Solar Cells Under 1 MeV Electron Irradiation
- Computer simulation of planar bifacial TOPCon solar cells by using Quokka 3 software
- UV-Engineered Oxygen Vacancies in MoOx Interlayers Enable 24.15% Efficiency for Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
- Analytical Model of Leakage Currents in Contact Resistivity Measurements on Silicon Solar Cells
- On perimeter losses in perovskite top- and poly-Si-passivated silicon bottom cells: Do small area tandems reveal the full efficiency potential?
- Design and optimization of emitter configurations for high-efficiency p-type tunnel oxide passivated contact solar cells
- TOPCon Solar Cells Made of n-Type and p-Type Epitaxially Grown Silicon Wafers
- Optimizing anti-reflection and surface passivation for n-type back-contact back-junction silicon solar cells using SiNx/SiON stack layers: Insights from Quokka
- Simulation of TOPCon/PERC hybrid bottom structure for perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells using Quokka3
- Analysis of Optical Potential and Electrical Loss between Upright Pyramids and Inverted Pyramids on Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells
- Optimization strategies and efficiency prediction for silicon solar cells with hybrid route of PERC and SHJ passivation contact
- Improved passivation and antireflection techniques for higher-efficiency interdigitated back contact (IBC) solar cells
- In-Situ Hydrogenation Strategies on Vanadium Oxide Hole-Selective Contact for Efficiency Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
- Development of 22.5% p-type tunnel oxide passivated contact solar cells through efficiency enhancement by replacing local Al-BSF in PERC cells with (p+) poly-Si
- Investigation of Contact Properties and Device Performance for Bifacial Double-Side Textured Silicon Solar Cells With Polysilicon Based Passivating Contacts
- 24% Efficient TOPCon-based back contacted polyZEBRA solar cells
- Physical mechanisms and design strategies for high-efficiency back contact tunnel oxide passivating contact solar cells
- Systematic modeling and optimization for high-efficiency interdigitated back-contact crystalline silicon solar cells
- Maximizing efficiency: Numerical modeling and optimization of 2-terminal perovskite/silicon tandem devices with different bottom cell structures
- Novel passivation and gettering strategy for silicon wafer by Al2O3/n-poly-Si/SiOx stack for high-efficiency p-type passivating tunnel oxide contact solar cells
- Investigation on significant efficiency enhancement of thin crystalline silicon solar cells
- Heterojunction tandem solar cells on Si-based metal oxides
- Over 700 mV IBC solar cell by optimizing front surface field passivation
- Optical optimization potential of transparent-passivated contacts in silicon solar cells
- Al2O3/MoOx hole-selective passivating contact for silicon heterojunction solar cell
- p-type heterojunction bifacial solar cell with rear side carrier selective contact
- Complex investigation of high efficiency and reliable heterojunction solar cell based on an improved Cu2O absorber layer
- The impact of interstitial Fe contamination on n-type Cz-silicon for high efficiency solar cells
- Bifacial screen-printed n-type passivated emitter rear totally diffused rear junction solar cells
- Exploring the potential and limitations of interdigitated back contact solar cells using experimentally validated Quokka 3-D simulation
- Empirical and Quokka simulated evidence for enhanced Voc due to limited junction area for high efficiency silicon solar cells
- Loss analysis and design optimization of large-area high-efficiency back-contacted silicon solar cells
- Etch-back simplifies interdigitated back contact solar cells